[edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.
• An 8mm fisheye lens, also made by Nikon, has proven useful for various scientific uses because of its equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to zenith angle.

  [edit] Other uses

• Some planetariums use a form of fisheye lens to project a two-dimensional film image of the night sky onto the interior of a dome.
• Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously ‘OMNIMAX’) motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen.
• Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
• Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater.
• The peepholes used in doors contain fisheye lenses.
• The first music video to be shot completely with fisheye lens was for the Beastie Boys song “Shake Your Rump” in 1989.

[edit] Retina

The retina contains two forms of photosensitive cells important to vision—rods and cones—in addition to the photosensitive ganglion cells involved in circadian adjustment but not vision. Though structurally and metabolically similar, the functions of rods and cones are quite different. Rod cells are highly sensitive to light, allowing them to respond in dim light and dark conditions; however, they cannot detect color differences. These are the cells that allow humans and other animals to see by moonlight, or with very little available light (as in a dark room). Cone cells, conversely, need high light intensities to respond and have high visual acuity. Different cone cells respond to different wavelengths of light, which allows an organism to see color. The shift from cone vision to rod vision is why the darker conditions become, the less color objects seem to have.

The differences between rods and cones are useful; apart from enabling sight in both dim and light conditions, they have further advantages. The fovea, directly behind the lens, consists of mostly densely-packed cone cells. The fovea gives humans a highly detailed central vision, allowing reading, bird watching, or any other task which primarily requires staring at things. Its requirement for high intensity light does cause problems for astronomers, as they cannot see dim stars, or other celestial objects, using central vision because the light from these is not enough to stimulate cone cells. Because cone cells are all that exist directly in the fovea, astronomers have to look at stars through the “corner of their eyes” (averted vision) where rods also exist, and where the light is sufficient to stimulate cells, allowing an individual to observe faint objects.

Rods and cones are both photosensitive, but respond differently to different frequencies of light. They contain different pigmented photoreceptor proteins. Rod cells contain the protein rhodopsin and cone cells contain different proteins for each color-range. The process through which these proteins go is quite similar — upon being subjected to electromagnetic radiation of a particular wavelength and intensity, the protein breaks down into two constituent products. Rhodopsin, of rods, breaks down into opsin and retinal; iodopsin of cones breaks down into photopsin and retinal. The breakdown results in the activation of Transducin and this activates cyclic GMP Phosphodiesterase, which lowers the number of open Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels on the cell membrane, which leads to hyperpolarization; this hyperpolarization of the cell leads to decreased release of transmitter molecules at the synapse.

Differences between the rhodopsin and the iodopsins is the reason why cones and rods enable organisms to see in dark and light conditions — each of the photoreceptor proteins requires a different light intensity to break down into the constituent products. Further, synaptic convergence means that several rod cells are connected to a single bipolar cell, which then connects to a single ganglion cell by which information is relayed to the visual cortex. This convergence is in direct contrast to the situation with cones, where each cone cell is connected to a single bipolar cell. This divergence results in the high visual acuity, or the high ability to distinguish detail, of cone cells compared to rods. If a ray of light were to reach just one rod cell, the cell’s response may not be enough to hyperpolarize the connected bipolar cell. But because several “converge” onto a bipolar cell, enough transmitter molecules reach the synapses of the bipolar cell to hyperpolarize it.

Furthermore, color is distinguishable due to the different iodopsins of cone cells; there are three different kinds, in normal human vision, which is why we need three different primary colors to make a color space.

A small percentage of the ganglion cells in the retina contain melanopsin and, thus, are themselves photosensitive. The light information from these cells is not involved in vision and it reaches the brain not via the optic nerve but via the retinohypothalamic tract, the RHT. By way of this light information, the body clock‘s inherent approximate 24-hour cycling is adjusted daily to nature’s light/dark cycle.

[edit] Accommodation

The structure of the mammalian eye owes itself completely to the task of focusing light onto the retina. This light causes chemical changes in the photosensitive cells of the retina, the products of which trigger nerve impulses which travel to the brain.

[edit] Retina

The retina contains two forms of photosensitive cells important to vision—rods and cones—in addition to the photosensitive ganglion cells involved in circadian adjustment but not vision. Though structurally and metabolically similar, the functions of rods and cones are quite different. Rod cells are highly sensitive to light, allowing them to respond in dim light and dark conditions; however, they cannot detect color differences. These are the cells that allow humans and other animals to see by moonlight, or with very little available light (as in a dark room). Cone cells, conversely, need high light intensities to respond and have high visual acuity. Different cone cells respond to different wavelengths of light, which allows an organism to see color. The shift from cone vision to rod vision is why the darker conditions become, the less color objects seem to have.

The differences between rods and cones are useful; apart from enabling sight in both dim and light conditions, they have further advantages. The fovea, directly behind the lens, consists of mostly densely-packed cone cells. The fovea gives humans a highly detailed central vision, allowing reading, bird watching, or any other task which primarily requires staring at things. Its requirement for high intensity light does cause problems for astronomers, as they cannot see dim stars, or other celestial objects, using central vision because the light from these is not enough to stimulate cone cells. Because cone cells are all that exist directly in the fovea, astronomers have to look at stars through the “corner of their eyes” (averted vision) where rods also exist, and where the light is sufficient to stimulate cells, allowing an individual to observe faint objects.

Rods and cones are both photosensitive, but respond differently to different frequencies of light. They contain different pigmented photoreceptor proteins. Rod cells contain the protein rhodopsin and cone cells contain different proteins for each color-range. The process through which these proteins go is quite similar — upon being subjected to electromagnetic radiation of a particular wavelength and intensity, the protein breaks down into two constituent products. Rhodopsin, of rods, breaks down into opsin and retinal; iodopsin of cones breaks down into photopsin and retinal. The breakdown results in the activation of Transducin and this activates cyclic GMP Phosphodiesterase, which lowers the number of open Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels on the cell membrane, which leads to hyperpolarization; this hyperpolarization of the cell leads to decreased release of transmitter molecules at the synapse.

Differences between the rhodopsin and the iodopsins is the reason why cones and rods enable organisms to see in dark and light conditions — each of the photoreceptor proteins requires a different light intensity to break down into the constituent products. Further, synaptic convergence means that several rod cells are connected to a single bipolar cell, which then connects to a single ganglion cell by which information is relayed to the visual cortex. This convergence is in direct contrast to the situation with cones, where each cone cell is connected to a single bipolar cell. This divergence results in the high visual acuity, or the high ability to distinguish detail, of cone cells compared to rods. If a ray of light were to reach just one rod cell, the cell’s response may not be enough to hyperpolarize the connected bipolar cell. But because several “converge” onto a bipolar cell, enough transmitter molecules reach the synapses of the bipolar cell to hyperpolarize it.

Furthermore, color is distinguishable due to the different iodopsins of cone cells; there are three different kinds, in normal human vision, which is why we need three different primary colors to make a color space.

A small percentage of the ganglion cells in the retina contain melanopsin and, thus, are themselves photosensitive. The light information from these cells is not involved in vision and it reaches the brain not via the optic nerve but via the retinohypothalamic tract, the RHT. By way of this light information, the body clock‘s inherent approximate 24-hour cycling is adjusted daily to nature’s light/dark cycle.

[edit] Accommodation